The Xenophobia Through The Social Theory Sociology Essay

The Xenophobia Through The Social Theory Sociology EssayIn this essay Id like to analyze the phenomenon of xenophobia in Ukraine. This exit corresponds to the unblock of limits of perimeter. To send-off this study its crucial to define what the border is. Basically tolerance is exit or capability to endure, allow and have the existing look or behaviour, which the person dislikes or disagrees with. This definition makes it clear that the ties betwixt two nonions of tolerance and xenophobia argon undoubted.The context, in which the xenophobia is investigated here, is quiet interesting. Ukraine has got its independence in 1991, besides onwards that for almost 400 centuries (with the exception of few years during the interwar period) it was a break open of diametric Russian empires, Polish advances and Habsburg Empire. on that stop consonantfore, the conditions of Ukrainian nation formation were in reality interesting. To my mind this process is bland in progress, th ats why nowadays we live with such an interesting oddball of xenophobia phenomenon there.The question my essay is going to termination is What ar the reasons of xenophobia in Ukraine?To answer it I need to assemble pursuit steps1. To re face the coeval greetes to the studying of xenophobia.2. To analyze the results of two sociological questi onenesss on xenophobia in the state in 1995 and 2006.3. To propose and analyze the reasons of xenophobia in Ukraine.The coordinate of my essay is intimatelyly related to the steps, which I mentioned above. Therefore, the low deviate result give the theoretical buns for the entropy analysis, which will be done in the second part. The third part will be more theoretical as Im going to find out which reasons manoeuvre the key role for xenophobia aim in Ukraine.The central place in the logic of my essay is occupied by the results of researches make by Kyiv multi field of study Institute of Sociology, one of the leading sociology r esearch agencies in Ukraine. As I mentioned above two researches were make in 1995 and 2006 correspondently. During each of these researches a footling bit more than 2000 slew were interviewed. The results of these researches be re extraditeative for the adult race of Ukraine (18+).Part 1. Theory overview1.1. Xenophobia through the favorable possibilityBefore bout to statistical data it is crucial to impinge on which theoretical priming this topic has, thats why I decided to look at xenophobia through the prism of mixer science theories. The widely distri andedly get hold ofed content of the notion of xenophobia stool be verbalised by the following theses1. This is the condition of fear towards strangers or simply fewthing unknown, unusual and strange2. Hatred, superstition and hostility towards representatives of separate races, religion, culture, foreigners or representatives of advanced(prenominal) surface aras as well as towards something unknown, unusual and strange.1This definition proves that the phenomenon of xenophobia has not scarcely single character, and as well has the complaisant nature as it is do of social reasons, factors of influence and consequences. Basically, the probe of xenophobia is grounded on the following sociological concepts and theoretical explications Other, Strange, identification, ethnocentrism, heathen compatibility, nation and interior(a)ism, collective ideas, tolerance and racism.The notion of xenophobia is ontologically committed to the categories of Other and Strange. G. W. F. Gegel, E. Gusserl, M. Haidegger and differents made a great contri barelyion to the development and investigation of these categories. It is crucial to mention that the Other is not indispensable the Strange. consort to G. Simmel, B. Vandelfels and E. Goffman the Strangers be not simply unknown people, precisely they be uninvited guests in ones world, who are not going to leave it. They come today to lodge he re tomorrow, but even if they stay they continue being the strangers. In other words, getting walk-to(prenominal) physically doesnt mean becoming closer spiritually. The realization of Their existance allows us to constitute ourselves and to isolate our We from them.2From this signalise of view xenophobia fits the speculation We (not strange) They (the Strange) very(prenominal) well.The next symmetry, which xenophobia rouse be investigated through, is the concepts of identities. In different clock the problem of identity and identification was developed by E. Fromm, G. H. Mead, A. Giddens, E. Erickson, J. Habermas, K. Horney, E. Smith, etc. population have numerous identities, force and volume of which varies depending on different factors. The structure of identity develops during the whole life according to the miscellanea of social context. credit has opposite nature and foreknows the statement that they are different from us. The beginning of xenophobia underside be seen when the stating of peculiarity is replaced with firmly valuating contrasting (they are worse than we are, we are their victims, etc.).3Usually it is connected with the phenomenon of prejudicious identification, when self-affirmation occurs through the humiliation of others. To my mind this approach to xenophobia is very logical and well-grounded.In time of globalization in contemporary societies the paganal (national) community predominates in peoples identification. Respectively, the issue of heathen identity gains a great value and a special status. From this point of view in such a situation ethnic identity causes intolerance towards representatives of other ethnic congregations.4Here we apprize see how xenophobia is born as a result of the Others deviation from the absorbed by legal age unitary pagan norm and the xenophobic person considers him/herself to be the standard of this cultural norm.To my opinion its time to turn to the theories of ethnocentrism and cu ltural compatibility. The notion of ethnocentrism was introduced by L. Gumplowicz and was delineate as the reasons, which make every people believe that it occupies the highest place not only among the contemporary peoples and nations, but also compare to all peoples of the past.5For ethnocentrism it is typically1. To accept own root as a standard for the evaluation of other groups (own is always right, natural and the best). It causes groups inner consolidation2. To recognize the other groups as worse ones. Its accompanied by hostility, distrust and disrespect to the members of other groups.These tendencies can exist separately from each other, but for xenophobia the last feature is obligatory condition. So, this is how xenophobia can be studied from the ethnocentrism point of view.Considering xenophobia its distinguished to stress that xenophobic world-view includes negative collective ideas, social stereotypes and preconceived ideas. The stereotypes can have neutral or even positive character, but xenophobia is a consequence of negative stereotypes only. These negative stereotypes influence over very lots the formation of social consciousness, defines the disfigured way of social and cross-cultural communication. This phenomenon is normal for privates and social groups. Therefore, to understand xenophobia it is crucial to investigate the stereotypes of social environment, but not the individuals prejudice. From the point of xenophobia its more logical to speak close to collective ideas (the notion proposed by E. Durkheim).6During the end of 19th beginning of twentieth centuries the racial myths became a part of nationalistic arguments. Therefore, the overview of approaches to investigate xenophobia wont be full without turning to surmise of nations and nationalism.Diverse understanding of nation is expressed in different approaches of understanding of nationalism. In contemporary tradition of national studies nationalism is characterized as eithe r neutral, or good, and only some generation as negative phenomenon. The discussion around the question of nation and nationalism still takes place. But there is no doubt that the radical aggressive musing of nationalism (chauvinism) is one of xenophobia types.For sure, xenophobia should be considered in terms of bipolarity, when its other rod cell is the phenomenon of tolerance. One of the ways to analyze xenophobia is to observe its opposite side. The notion of tolerance was discussed in works of M. Weber, G. W. F. Gegel, T. Hobbes, J. Locke and others. The real revolution of tolerance theory was made by the theory of personal autonomy of J. St. Mill. He claimed the authority of individual freedom. An individual is absolutely sovereign in his actions. His/her freedom can be limited if his actions harm or trouble other members of monastic order. Starting from the times when this theory was elaborated the principle of personal freedom became the basis of acceptance and human righ ts in liberal theory.7Thereby, this overview provides an understanding of existing approaches to investigate xenophobia as social phenomenon. I named and discussed briefly basic theories to approach intolerance expressed in xenophobia. The concepts of Other, Strange, identification, ethnocentrism, cultural compatibility, nation and nationalism, collective ideas, tolerance and racism constructed the basis for further investigation of the issue Im interested in. For me the central place in this overview is taken by identity and issues related to it. In this essay we are going to see how human (social) identity influences xenophobia in Ukrainian case. Nevertheless, I would fatigue that all named above theories are applicable for the case, which is discussed in this paper, but Im going to stress on the most important just for that very case of Ukraine.Part 2. Analysis of empirical data2.1. Bogardus scaleIts important to describe Bogardus scale briefly as this manner was used for the r esearches, results of which are going to be discussed in this paper. Thetesting scale of xenophobia was named afterward its author Emory S. Bogardus. It was elaborated to estimate willingness of people to take part in social contacts on different takes with representatives of varying social groups (for instance, differentethnic, racialandsocio-lingual groups, internal minorities, etc).8The Bogardus scale asks how close people would accept the representative of each group, which research interested in (the answer 1.00 represents no social distance at all as its the closest viable social contact) to accept as family member (no social distance) as the close friends as neighbors as familiar as the citizensof the same res publica as thevisitorsof the country, where answerer is coming from the responder fates to exclude this person from his/her country.9The Scale of Xenophobia proposed by Bogardus is based on the method of cumulating as the respondents answer, the social distance, which the respondent chooses, means that he/she also accepts looseger social distances (according to the scale) with a member of social group, which he-she asked about. This method was criticized oft, because it simplified the importee of different social contacts, because family relations as well as close friendship cant be compared to interactions of far-away type. Nevertheless, this scale started being used in 1925 and is still used. This is not the only way to measure social distance, but it was applied for the researches, which are discussed in this paper.2.2. Xenophobia in Ukraine. General overviewTo make the general overview of xenophobia in the country the best way is to see the dynamics of xenophobia rank change in time. Lets see the cast 1, which represents the knock backrest comparing the xenophobia business leader in Ukraine in 1995 and 2006.Its manifest that in Ukraine the xenophobia index towards all ethnic, ethnic-lingual and racial groups presented in the di splay panel annexd. Hierarchy of dislikes almost didnt change except of Americans, intolerance towards who change magnitude of 0.9 points.Ethnic/Racial/Ethnic-lingual Group19952006Ukrainian-speaking Ukrainians1,722,06Russian-speaking Ukrainians1,842,23Russians2,052,39Jews3,714,13Polishes3,824,37Germans3,924,56Americans3,724,63Black people5,015,42Figure 1. The xenophobia index in Ukraine towards several ethnic/racial/ethnic-lingual groups. 1995 and 2006.10The table also shows that the highest rate of intolerance was towards black people, the members of different racial group, two in 1995 and in 2006. Intolerance rates towards the representatives of different ethnic groups, which are culturally distant (Americans and Europeans), are a bit displace comparing to the black people. The smallest social distances are towards ethnically and culturally close ethnic groups. To observe the real picture of xenophobia it is crucial to consider the following percent of those, who according th e researches results wanted the member of other nations to become the member of their families. So, 59% of Ukrainian population want to accept Ukrainian-speaking Ukrainian as a family member, 13% of responders said yes to accepting Americans as their families and only 5% considered as possible to include a black person to their family. Moreover, the percentage of those, who wouldnt allow the representatives of the named above groups in Ukraine, makes the picture even more impressive 0,5% of responders dont want to see Ukrainian-speaking Ukrainians in Ukraine (), 9% are against Americans presence in the state and 21% of population said no to black peoples arrival to Ukraine.11There are some basic theories of xenophobic dislikes. So Im going to see in which ways the xenophobia is usually explicateed by the theorists of this phenomenon in Europe and the USA.According to Theodor W. Adorno intolerance is an element of authoritarian system, which depresses personality and makes people s eek for some objects to wreak their anger on. But this theory has nothing in common with image of scapegoat, because this object should be diachronicly grounded and perform as unshakable element of tradition and it has to be defined quite well by the existing well-known stereotypes12. He created this theory regarding anti-Semitism and ethnical prejudice in authoritarian societies. Investigating post-war intolerance in the USA and Germany he didnt probably realize the topicality of his invention for the democratic easterly Europe in 1990s and even 2000s.Another theory, which can be relevant for the Ukrainian case and is worse to be considered, is stinting theory. Its explanation is quiet different, but fits Ukrainian reality for my mind. Gordon W. Allport argued that prejudice increases when the members of different unequal ethnic and racial groups contact each other, when one group dominates the other one. It means that not every experience of contact with representatives of oth er ethnical groups leads to decreasing of stereotypes. In other words the experience of interaction between members of different ethnic/racial groups is positive and successful if only they are equal by social status and they do not compete against each other.13The theory of cognitive-linguistic orientation stresses on the fact that stereotypes are to simplify the communication internal the social group and to strengthen sense of belonging to this social group between its members. This rule especially works during the radical social change periods, when group interests and mechanism of group protection form.14Three theories were proposed, which to my mind explain xenophobia in Europe and the USA well. Moreover, it fits Ukrainian case as Ukraine belongs to post-authoritarian states of easterly Europe, which face a lot of difficulties on the way of following the land and improving democratic values in societies, thats why we can break that authoritarian personality, who is intolera nt to others, is still widespread. Following the second theory we can also suppose transformation of economy to lead to phobia increase on the ground of efficient competition. The opening of Ukrainian market after the years of closed plan economy faced and is facing apology from ordinary Ukrainian. Im sure that low living standard caused by economical instability and weak economy of Ukraine led to the fear of new economic reality, which is followed by intolerance increase.Unfortunately any comparisons of Ukraine to other states are nonsensical as Ukrainian xenophobia situation is quite different because of intolerant location of Ukrainians towards each other and even themselves. This peculiarity makes me look deeper for other possible reasons of xenophobia in Ukraine otherwise the reasons named above would be enough.2.3. Xenophobia in Ukraine internal dimensionThe results of the researches, which are discussed in this paper, were also analyzed on the basis of the geographical d ivision. Usually Ukraine is divided up into two ethnic-lingual move East and westward, but KIIS divided it into 5 sub-regions (see Figure 2).Figure 2. Map of Ukraine this dimension is used for data analysis in 2006. 2 orange split are Ukrainian-speaking and 3 blue sub-regions are mostly Russian-speaking.15The detailed analysis of ethnic evaluations and attitudes, which were made on the basis of this researchs results (see the Figure 3), declared that Eastern and westward parts of Ukraine differ from each other by the level and character of xenophobia attitudes. From the table presented infra it is possible to see that the level of xenophobia is higher among the horse opera Ukrainians than among the population of Eastern Ukrain. The table, which shows the xenophobia rate by large Ukrainian ethnic-lingual groups, is also presented below (see Figure 4). This table as well as the previous one shows the percentage of respondents who agree to accept the representative of these lar ge ethnic-lingual groups as a family member. The lower the percentage is, the higher rate of xenophobia is.to accept as a family memberWest, %W.-C., %E.- C., %South, %East, %Ukrain.-speaking Ukrainian58,56557,55852Rus.-speaking Ukrainians27625765,562Russians1952555862Jews715102311Figure 3. Willingness to accept representative of large ethnic-social groups as a family member by regions (2006).16to accept as family memberAll respondents of 2006, %U-s Ukrainians, %R-s Ukrainians, %Russians, %Ukrain.-speaking Ukrainian59606153Rus.-speaking Ukrainian55426467Russian49335674Jew1491720Figure 4. Willingness of large Ukrainian ethnic-lingual groups to accept the representative of these groups as a family member (2006).17 So, according to these tables the highest level of intolerance towards related cultural and ethnic groups is in the Western Ukraine and among Ukrainian-speaking Ukrainians. The data of the Institute of Sociology of the National academy of Sciences of Ukraine claims that the situation was the same in 199218. The highest xenophobia rate in this region and among this group of Ukrainians is towards Jews and Russians comparing to the other ethnic-lingual groups. The tables data also show that both groups of Ukrainians, Ukrainian-speaking and Russian-speaking, has a low-level tolerance towards the members of their own groups. Only 60-64% of respondents agree to accept a member of their ethnic-lingual group as a family member.Thereby, in this part the results of researches made by KIIS in 1995 and 2006 were analyzed. The general overview of xenophobia level in Ukraine indicated the most tolerated and not tolerated groups. From this point of view Ukrainian-speaking Ukrainians were the most tolerated group in Ukrainian conjunction, but black people were tolerated much less. In general during 1995-2006 the level of xenophobia increased much. I turned to three theories to ground the xenophobia Adornos depressed personality theory, economic and cognitive-linguist ic theories. Post-socialist depression, the fear of new economic realities and low economic development of country (causing the low standard of living), dominance of stereotypes in interaction/communication with representatives of other ethnic and racial groups represent main social reasons for high level of xenophobia in a country. The increase of it can be explained by long no change in socio-economic situation in the state. Of course, these theories explains partly the xenophobia in Ukraine, but to my mind Ukrainian case needs detailed individual approach as it has peculiarities. The Ukrainian xenophobia peculiarity is xenophobia inside dominant national community. According to KIIS data of 2006 there is xenophobic tension between Ukrainian-speaking and Russian speaking groups of Ukrainians. Moreover, there is xenophobia inside each of these groups towards the members of each of them. This part of the paper declared the low level of tolerance in Ukrainian society towards all pos sible ethic-lingual/ethnic/racial groups.To my mind there are three different ways to explain this phenomenon of intolerance in the Western Ukraine.Part 3. Theoretical argumentation of research results3.1. Structural theoryThe first explanation is based on the structure of peoples settlements as from this point of view the Western Ukrainian region is quite different from the Eastern part. Statistics are quite interesting, they show that half of the Western population lives in countryside, but only 10% of Eastern Ukrainians live in colonys.19Its crucial to express that oddment between the urban and rural areas is still very big in the meaning of education and wealth. In some villages it is even hard to get access to the basic school education. The villagers are less amend than townsmen are, thats why its possible to assume that the level of education is higher on the East than on the West of Ukraine. This can partly explain the xenophobia level differences in both regions of Ukra ine. This approach was called structural (the structure of settlements) by sociologists20.The lower toleration level in rural areas can be also grounded on economic factors. During the independence period the economic situation became much worse in countryside comparing to cities. Here we can go back to T. W. Adornos theory about depressed personality. In contemporary Ukrainian village we have classical case, when people being unsatisfied with their life charge other people in their misfortune. In Western Ukrainian case Jews, Russians and Russian-speaking Ukrainians are blamed. On the East of Ukraine traditionally (from the USSR times) they blame Ukrainian-speaking Ukrainians and foreigners from the West.Nevertheless, it is obvious that economic factor-based explanation is not enough. The Western Ukrainian case turns to the deeper historical and cultural roots of this phenomenon. Western Ukrainians have already got the image of enemy, they founder this image down from parents to c hildren. In the situation of radical social change they use it more actively. Of course, the image Im speaking about is embodied in a Russian. This image is very well supported by the stereotypes. Russian is a symbol of enslavement of Soviets times (the attitudes to this on the East is much differs).I propose to take a look at the table, which is to present the xenophobia rates in Western and Eastern cities and villages. This will make it clearer if this difference between both regions xenophobia depends more on structural or historical/cultural reasonsEthnic or Ethnic-lingual groupWestern regionEastern regionCityVillageCityVillageUkrainian-speaking Ukrainians2,332,021,971,82Russian-speaking Ukrainians3,383,481,611,61Russians3,673,861,611,44Figure 5. Xenophobia rate in Ukrainian city and village by regions(researches for 2005 and 2006).21The data from the table testify against the structural theory but not at all as we can mention the small difference between the citys and the villa ges xenophobia rates. It is also easy to notice that city and village from one region have more in common in their attitudes than villagers and townsmen from different parts of Ukraine.3.2. In hold majorityTo explain the phenomenon of xenophobia in both large Ukrainian ethnic-lingual groups Id like to turn to the theory presented byK. Liebkind in 199622. According to Liebkinds point of view minorities and majorities can be observed through the dimension into detain and risky in order to investigate the way how minorities get along together with majority. I think that Ukrainian case fits in with this theory much.This theory sees two types of majorities and minorities in this perspective. The group of insecure majority is defined by the defensive internal identity, which is constructed on voiceless ethnic or national basis. Interacting with nonage usually insecure majority declines their demands.Secure majoritys identification is vice-versa constructed on weak ethnic or national ba sis moreover, it doesnt tension its own identity much. Obviously, this kind of majority respects the rights of minorities more and tries to fulfill their demands while including them into the society where they rule.The other side of this coin is minorities. Insecure minorities are opposite to insecure minorities, which were presented above. This group has a very weak ethnic or national basis, thats why their identifications construction goes beyond the scope of their group. In the case of insecure minority the assimilation is widespread while including them into the society ruled by majority. For the representatives of insecure minority the community of majority is the standard, which they distort for. In case, if assimilation as the only possible method of insecure minority inclusion fails, this group is supposed to be marginalized.The secure minority position is simpler as they admit their own particularity and wants to be know by the social majority. Its inner identification is built on the strong ethnic or national ground.23By-turn she noted that this scheme allows to invent different combinations of its components. He also mentioned that this distinction of majorities and minorities has another consequence while forming new states. If, for example, a secure minority happens to create its own state, its more credibly that this minority will become an insecure intolerant majority.24Turning to Ukrainian case after the analysis of this scheme I realized that from the point of view of these categories in Ukraine we deal with two groups, one of which is insecure majority on the Western part of Ukraine, and another group is secure majority of the South-East of the country. Of course, this distinction is far from perfect as I assume there are no pure categories in real life, but anyway for the purposes of this essay Im able to make some generalizations on the basis of contemporary Ukrainian socio-political life.In XIX century the leaders and inspirers of Ukr ainian national building considered the Western Ukraine to be Ukrainian Piedmont as Ukrainian national building was mostly promoted by Lviv. The national idea was the thing, which the West carried all the time in the interest of whole contemporary Ukraine. notwithstanding now this region is highly nationalistic (I will turn to this issue in the next part). As it was said above the identification of Western Ukrainians is based on high national profile. The radical right parties are highly popular there (this fact also has some correlation with xenophobia rate). It can be explained by historical path of this region.The situation is much different on the East. I consider Eastern Ukraine to be secure majority. It means that population of this region has no strong nationality-based identity, because its identity is citizenship-based (I will turn to this later in the next part). Eastern Ukrainians never cared much about the Ukrainian nationalism, b